Adjectives are words that modify or describe a noun. Most adjectives do not change whether the noun described is singular or plural.
The parade had one red car. The parade had many red cars.
Demonstrative adjectives (this, that, these, those) are different in singular and plural.
This red car is pretty. Those red cars are pretty.
Two things that are equal in some way can be compared using the construction as… as… (“She is as tall as her mother”), or, to show inequality, not as… as… The construction so… as… can also be used, although this construction is a little less formal, and is used more often to show inequality (not so… as…).
Runic artefacts from the Middle Ages are plentiful, indicating that their use did not decline as greatly as Imer suggests.
The demonstrative adjectives are this, that, these, and those, and they are used to emphasize exactly which thing is being referred to. (These words can also be used as pronouns.)
This study will use non-monumental artefacts that bear runic inscriptions. These inscriptions do not necessarily follow the same formulas as displayed on rune stones.
Further research showed those earlier conclusions to be misleading.
Adjectives describe nouns, while adverbs describe verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. Most adverbs have the ending -ly.
Example of an adjective describing a noun:
Sara sang a beautiful song. (song = noun)
Example of an adverb describing a verb:
Sara sang beautifully. (sang = verb)
Example of an adverb describing an adjective:
Simulation 3 used a differently shaped pole shoe. (shaped = adjective)
All countable nouns in English should be preceded by an article in the singular. When referring to something in a general sense, or when introducing something, the indefinite article is used. When referring to a particular thing, the definite article is used, even if that thing has been introduced within the same sentence.
If a game allows a player to perform an action, the player expects to be able to perform the action across the whole game.
When referring to plural general things, no article is used.
Games allow players to take actions.
If a noun is an uncountable (like “coffee” and “milk”), it does not take an article.
I usually drink coffee with milk.
The indefinite articles a and an are used to indicate a non-specific thing, or any instance of a thing. Whether to use a or an depends not on spelling, but on the sound of the word that comes immediately after the article. The article a is used before words beginning with a consonant sound, while the article an is used before words beginning with a vowel sound.
Use a before a word that begins with a w-sound or a y-sound, even if the word itself begins with a vowel, like united and one.
Several agencies suspected a one-armed man of the crime, and they made a united effort to catch him.
Use an before a word that begins with a vowel sound, even if the word itself begins with a consonant, like honest.
She gave an honest answer.
Note that the a and an distinction applies to the very next word in the sentence, not to the word that the a or an actually modifies. If the next word is in parentheses, however, the article can ‘match’ the first word after the parentheses.
This line should be read as a, hopefully intriguing, example of an, admittedly unlikely, sentence. (“a” modifies “example”; “an” modifies “sentence”)
Use the indefinite article the first time that a (indefinite) general thing is referred to. (“a” modifies “thing”)
The definite article used before an acronym should also depend on how the acronym would be pronounced out loud.
According to an SVA official… According to a USDA official…
The definite article in English is the, for both singular and plural nouns. The definite article points to a specific instance of a thing. For the first instance in which an indefinite or general thing is referred to, an indefinite article is used. The next time that same thing is referred to, the definite article is used, even within the same sentence.
If a game allows a player to perform an action, the player expects to be able to perform the action across the whole game.
[For constructions like “The higher the temperature, the worse the humidity feels” (Swedish “Ju… desto…”), see Correlative pairs: the / the.]
Sentences consist of clauses. These clauses are either independent clauses, which can stand on their own, or subordinate clauses, which have to be attached to an independent clause.
All sentences in an academic text should be complete, which means that they must consist of at least one independent clause.
Example of an independent clause:
Sara saw a dog.
Example of a subordinate clause:
which was why she was late.
A non-restrictive or non-defining clause adds information that is not essential. The information could be set off in parentheses, commas, or eliminated entirely without a significant loss of meaning. Usually, either which or who is used as the pronoun introducing the clause.
The book, which explains these concepts, was published in 2012.
Here, the non-restrictive clause simply adds some additional information about the book. We readers already know which book is being described, and the fact that the book ‘explains these concepts’ is only extra information that could be left out without altering our understanding of which book the author is referring to.
[Compare to a restrictive clause, like “The book that explains these concepts was published in 2012.” Here, we readers might not know yet which book is being described (perhaps this is the first time in the text that the book has been mentioned).]
A restrictive or defining clause adds essential information about the subject. This information cannot be eliminated without losing meaning, and it is not set off by a comma or put in parentheses. Either that or which is used as the pronoun introducing the clause.
The book that explains these concepts was published in 2012.
Here, the restrictive clause specifies which book is being talked about. We readers might not know yet which book is being described, and the specific information that the book ‘explains these concepts’ helps us to understand exactly which book the author is referring to.
[Compare to a non-restrictive clause, like “The book, which explains these concepts, was published in 2012.” Here, we readers already know which book is being talked about, and the fact that the book ‘explains these concepts’ is only extra information that could be left out without altering our understanding.]
Conjunctions join words, phrases, clauses, and sentences. Coordinating conjunctions join equivalent grammatical elements, and include the words and, but, and so. Subordinating conjunctions join an independent clause to a dependent (or subordinate) clause, and include words and phrases like although, because, before, even though, in order to, so that, and while. Correlative conjunctions are words that come in pairs, like either… or, neither… nor, and both… and.
The phrase as well as functions like the word ‘and’, and is slightly more formal. However, as well as is not synonymous with ‘and’, and as well as can not always be used instead of ‘and’. The phrase places slightly more emphasis on the items that were listed before it.
Several case studies are presented based on information gathered from the inscriptions as well as from the archaeological material.
Here, the implication is that the inscriptions are the primary source of information. The archaeological material is not exactly lessened in importance, but it is simply not the focus.
Usually nor is part of the correlative conjunction pair neither… nor… However, just as or can be used without either, nor can be used without neither, as long as the first clause or sentence was negative.
However, no details were presented in the examined products, nor could a pilot get specific information about the degree of any accompanying aviation hazards.
Correlative conjunctions are joining words that come in pairs, like either… or and neither… nor.
Either chocolates or biscuits sound good to me.
Neither biscuits nor ice cream sound good to me.
Both biscuits and ice cream sound good to me.
Whether we like it or not, winter is here.
See the separate entries for the correlative pairs the… the… and rather… than…
The word pair rather… than… compares two hypothetical outcomes, often with the verb ‘would’. The two things being compared should be in the same grammatical form. Note especially that the word ‘to’ should not come after the word than, unless it also appeared after the word rather. Note also that the phrase rather than with no words in between (as in “They prefer to be right rather than wrong”) is not a conjunction.
Weather forecasters would rather be right than be wrong.
Weather forecasters would rather include rare scenarios than miss certain developments.
The definite article can be repeated (the…, the…) to show that one action leads to another. (Swedish ju… desto…)
The more positive the potential energy, the stronger the convection is likely to become.
Another way of phrasing that is “When the potential energy is more positive, then the convection is likely to become stronger.”
The conjuctions while and whereas mean nearly the same thing when used to contrast one thing to another thing.
In test A, a weak magnet was used, whereas/while in test B, a strong magnet was used.
Note that the word whereas cannot be used as a substitute for while if while indicates that two or more things are happening at the same time.
Test A was performed while test B was still being designed. (Test A happened before I finished designing test B.)
Contractions are the words that are formed when certain letters are left out of a word or phrase, usually taking the form of single words that replace two (or sometimes more) words. The letters that are left out are replaced with an apostrophe. Familiar forms of contractions include a helper verb + ‘not’ (the phrase “do not” becomes don’t; “have not” becomes haven’t, etc.), a personal pronoun + ‘to have’ (the phrase “I have” becomes I’ve, etc.), and a helper verb plus the a form of ‘to be’ (the phrase “you are” becomes you’re, etc.).
Note especially the word it’s, which is a contraction of the phrase “it is”. The word it’s is not the possessive form of it. [The possessive of the word it is formed without an apostrophe (its) and is therefore an exception to the rule that singular possessives are formed by adding ‘s to the end of a word.]
Contractions are considered informal and are therefore generally avoided in academic texts.
The word it’s, with an apostrophe, is not a possessive, but contraction of the phrase it is.
It’s possible that if global warming continues, malaria could reoccur in Sweden.
NP-Complete problems are intractable, but it’s possible to find a tractable subproblem.
[The word its, without an apostrophe, is the possessive form of it. The word its is therefore is an exception to the rule that singular possessives are formed adding ‘-s (as in “Emma‘s car”).
Headline language, with its many omitted words, complicates syntactic classification.]
Most nouns are countable nouns, which means that they refer to things that can be enumerated (texts, computers, shoes, rockets, etc.). These nouns take comparative words like several, many and fewer.
I have several computers, but I have fewer than Erik, who has many more computers than I do.
Many nouns are considered uncountable, which means they refer to things that cannot be easily enumerated (milk, sand, memory, space, power, access, information, etc.). These nouns take comparative words like much and less.
My new phone has much more memory than my old phone, but it also has less screen space.
For regular nouns, the plural form is created by adding the letter s to the end of the noun (noun, nouns). If the singular noun ends with s, x, ch, or sh, then es is added to form the plural (bus, buses; fox, foxes; arch, arches; wish, wishes). If the word ends with y, then the y is dropped and ies added (city, cities). No punctuation is ever used between the noun and the plural-s, even if the word is an acronym that ends with the letter s.
RSSs were not available for many newspapers.
The possessive case indicates ownership and is shown by adding ‘s to a singular noun, by adding an apostrophe after the s in a plural noun, or by using a prepositional phrase.
A player’s experience is analysed using a new technique.
The players’ experiences are analysed using a new technique.
The graves of two women were found in the rich burial site at Oseberg.
Usually, an “‘s” is used when the owner is a person or a pet and “of” is used when the owner is a thing or an animal that is not a pet. There are exceptions to this rule, however.
The word its, without an apostrophe, is the possessive form of it. The word its is therefore is an exception to the rule that singular possessives are formed with an apostrophe-s (as in “Emma‘s car”).
Headline language, with its many omitted words, complicates syntactic classification.
[The word it’s, with an apostrophe, is not a possessive, but a contraction of the phrase it is.
It’s possible that if global warming continues, malaria could reoccur in Sweden.
NP-Complete problems are intractable, but it’s possible to find a tractable subproblem.]
The singular personal possessives are my (1st person), your (2nd), and her, his, or its (3rd).
The reliquary was transformed into a jewellery box after its arrival in Norway.
The plural personal possessives are our (1st person), your (2nd), and their (3rd).
Women were sometimes buried with their possessions.
The possessive form of a plural noun in s-form uses an apostrophe added after the noun’s final s (s’).
The players’ experiences are analysed using a new technique.
If the plural noun does not end in the letter s, then ‘s is used, as in the singular possessive.
Two women’s graves were found in the rich burial site at Oseberg.
The singular possessive is formed by adding an apostrophe-s (’s) to the end of the word.
The player’s experience is analysed using a new technique.
The form is the same when a single subject possesses more than one thing.
A smith’s tools were considered masculine, while a weaver’s tools were attributed to the feminine gender.
Collective nouns, such as “people” or “team”, still take the singular possessive form when the noun is treated as a single entity.
The team’s positive attitude could be seen in its cheerful training session.
A pronoun is a word that takes the place of another word. The most familiar type of pronouns are the personal pronouns such as she, it, you, they, and so on. Pronouns can serve a variety of other functions, such as the relative pronouns like that, which, and who, which introduce descriptive relative clauses. The demonstrative pronouns like that and this can also be used to modify a noun (“this idea”, “these results”); when used in this way, these demonstrative pronouns become demonstrative adjectives.
The common demonstrative pronouns are this and that (singular) and these and those (plural). These words are used to take the place of an entire phrase. Demonstrative pronouns should only be used when the meaning is unambiguous.
Constraint programming is a declarative programming method for modeling combinatorial optimization problems in terms of constraints. This is a fairly dense statement, so let us address the concepts one at a time.
Runic artefacts are both textual sources and archaeological artefacts. Because of this it will be important to classify runic artefacts according to both function and inscription.
[Generally, it is a good idea to avoid using too many demonstrative pronouns. An alternative is to use a demonstrative adjective, as this form is often more clear.]
“One” can be used as a pronoun to refer to either the quantity 1 (numerical), or to unspecified people in general (indefinite). In a similar way, none or no one is used to indicate that there are no such things. None is usually used in the numerical sense. No one is usually preferred for the indefinite sense, although none is also possible here.
A few of the artefacts examined in the analysis are of stone, but none are the size of rune stones. (numerical)
A few people were late, but no one / none left early. (indefinite)
The 3rd-person indefinite pronoun, used to refer to the writer or to people in general, is one. In speaking and less formal writing, “you” is often used instead of one. The word is gender neutral.
This report includes some jargon that one would not expect to find in standard written English.
[Compare: In the following example, the second time one is used, it is as an indefinite pronoun (here in the possessive, one‘s). The first time it is used, it is a numerical pronoun.
One way of proving one’s masculinity is to test it against other men.]
The word one can be used as a pronoun. In this example, the word one stands for the phrase “A coordination”.
A coordination with a conjunction is called syndetic, and one without a conjunction is called asyndetic.
The phrase one another means “each other”.
The two tests are independent of one another.
The pronoun one, when used this way, can be pluralized. In the example below, ones stands for “trials”.
We did not have time to repeat all the trials, so we re-ran only the ones that seemed the most promising.
Note that when one is used as a pronoun, it cannot be substituted by a numeral 1.
[Compare: In the following example, one is first used as a numerical pronoun. In its second use (one‘s), it is an indefinite pronoun.
One way of proving one’s masculinity is to test it against other men.]
The most common relative pronouns in written English are that, where, which, who/whom/whose, and why. Correct use of these words helps a text to feel more formal.
The bird that is sitting in the tree is black and white.
This formulation is inefficient for the user, who is forced to specify a large number of variables.
People whose car does not meet the standard could decide to use other means of transportation.
[Note that the correct use of relative pronouns in formal academic writing can differ from spoken or informal English, in which the relative pronouns are often dropped. The following example is not grammatically incorrect, but it is less formal.
The bird sitting in the tree is black and white.]
The relative pronouns that and which are easily confused, and there is no definitive correct usage; furthermore, these words are often used differently in speech. However, the two words are generally not used in an exactly identical fashion in writing. That often refers only to the noun just before the word that, and the word is commonly used to introduce restrictive clauses (see below).
These simple rules yield a puzzle that cannot be solved through trial and error.
The phrase “that cannot be solved through trial and error” is called a restrictive or defining clause, and it adds crucial information about the word “puzzle”. A restrictive clause can not be set off by a comma.
The relative pronoun when is used to introduce a clause that indicates a time.
Yesterday was a day when everything went wrong. ***
When can also used to mean approximately “if”.
The estimates are quite robust when adding economic control variables. (If the economic control variables are added, then the estimates are robust.)
The relative pronoun where is used when a physical location is being referred to. Where is also often used when identifying variables in equations or in figures.
The lab where the element was discovered burned down in 1902.
The relationship between the displacement field, the electric field and the polarization is D = ε0E + P, where ε0 is the electric constant.
Where can also be used to refer to publications, although the phrase “in which” is more formal than where in these cases.
Arwill-Nordbladh wrote a compendium of gender theory in archaeology, where she argues that archaeology is androcentric in numerous ways.
The relative pronouns which and that are easily confused, and there is no definitive correct usage; furthermore, these words are often used differently in speech. However, the two words are generally not used in an exactly identical fashion in writing. Which often refers to the idea presented by the entire previous clause, and the word is commonly used to introduce non-restrictive clauses (see below).
A claim was made that the pendant belongs to a “female hoard”, which is one of the claims examined in this thesis.
The phrase “which is one of the claims examined in this thesis” is called a non-restrictive or non-defining clause, because this clause does not add crucial information to the main clause. This type of clause is (usually) set off by a comma.
Use the pronoun who to refer to a human subject, and when citing other authors.
The user, who is left with a difficult decision, must list all the variables.
This concept is explained in more detail by Greenbaum & Quirk, who distinguish coordination from subordination (1990:262).
The relative pronoun “who” is used, instead of “that” or “which”, when the pronoun refers to a human. However, if the pronoun is the object, then the form whom (the object form of “who”) is also grammatically correct. Using whom is considered formal and in most texts “who” is to be preferred. However, after a preposition, whom should always be used. In the two following examples “for” and “by” are prepositions.
Teachers for whom these textbooks were written were critical of the content.
A lengthy discussion of what would be considered ungrammatical, and by whom, is beyond the scope of this thesis.
[In spoken and less formal English, whom is rarely used; instead, sentences are constructed slightly differently.
Teachers who these textbooks were written for were critical of the content.
A lengthy discussion of who would consider these constructions ungrammatical is beyond the scope of this thesis.]
A form of the relative pronoun “who” is used, instead of “that” or “which”, when the pronoun refers to a human. When the clause introduces something owned by a human, the possessive pronoun whose is used.
People whose car does not meet the standard could decide to use other means of transportation.
The subject and verb of a sentence must agree in number. In other words, if the subject is singular, then the verb must be in singular form. A plural subject requires a plural verb.
With regular verbs, a single subject takes an “-s” at the end of the verb, while plural subjects do not.
This report recommends controlling mosquito populations. (subject = This report)
We recommend controlling mosquito populations. (subject = We)
English has a variety of irregular verbs, notably the forms of ‘to be’, and many help verbs.
Puzzles falling into this category are very challenging for humans. (subject = Puzzles)
This category of puzzles is very challenging for humans. (subject = This category)
The number of a verb reflects the number of the subject of the sentence or clause, not the most recent noun. The situation can be confusing when the most recent noun is in plural but the subject is singular, or when the subject is plural but the most recent noun is singular. In a longer sentence, it can be difficult to distinguish which noun is the subject, especially if several nouns of a different number occur between the subject and the verb.
Currently, the Tiger mosquito, Aedes albopictus, a tropic and subtropic species that is a vector for around 20 different arboviruses that can cause diseases, is found in southern Germany. (subject = the tiger mosquito)
A compound subject is a subject that includes two (or more) nouns combined with the word and. The verb should then take the plural form, even if one noun is plural and one noun is singular.
This paper addresses the archaic notion that gender roles and gender itself are permanent or stagnant over time. (subject = “gender roles [plural] and gender itself [singular]”)
The verb “to be” serves three primary functions. First, it is used as a main verb to indicate existence. Second, it is used as a helper verb along with another verb in the -ing form to indicate a progressive tense. Third, it is used to indicate the passive voice in various tenses.
Main verb: I am certain that you are correct, although he is not convinced. The paper was good and the results were conclusive.
Progressive: I am going to the store. We were planning to have a party.
Passive: The paper was written. The paper is published. The paper will be written. The paper is going to be written.
Am, is, and was are used with singular subjects. Am is the 1st person present tense; is is the 3rd person present tense; was is the 1st and 3rd-person past tense.
Present: (1st person) I am late. (3rd person) She is late. He is late. It is gone.
Past: (1st person) I was late. (3rd person) She was late. He was late. It was gone.
Are and were are forms of “to be” in the present and past tense respectively, and are used with 2nd person singular, and 1st, 2nd, and 3rd person plural.
Whether to use is or are depends on whether the subject of the sentence is single or plural. The choice can be confusing when the subject and the noun closest to the verb are not in the same number, as in the following examples.
This category of puzzles is very challenging for humans. (subject is singular, “This category”)
Puzzles falling into this category are very challenging for humans. (subject is plural, “Puzzles”)
The verb “to have” serves two primary functions. First, it is used as a main verb to indicate possession. Second, it is used as a helper verb along with another verb to indicate various tenses.
Note that the phrases “have to” and “have got to” are verbal phrases that mean approximately “must”.
Had is used for 2st, 2nd, and 3rd person, both singular and plural, and it always indicates some sort of past action. Had can be used as a main verb in the simple past tense to indicate possession, or with a helper verb to indicate other types of tenses.
Has is present tense, and used only for 3rd person singular. Has can be used as a main verb to indicate possession, or as a helper verb to indicate various tenses.
Has is also used with nouns that are plural in themselves, but that act collectively.
The team has a good chance of winning tonight.
Have is used in the 1st and 2nd person singular, and the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd person plural. Have can be used as a main verb to indicate possession, or as a helper verb in combination with another verb to indicate various tenses.
Have is also used when the word “they” is being used to refer to a single person of a non-specified gender.
If a student does the homework, then they have a good chance of passing the class.
The phrases have to/has to/had to and have got to/has got to are verbal phrases that mean approximately “must”.
With a third-person singular subject, the verb takes an –s in the present tense. That is, when the subject is 1) only a single entity that could be replaced by “she,” “he” or “it” and 2) the action takes place in the present, one adds the letter s to the verb.
This new computer runs faster than the old one. It saves time.
Compare to the following sentence with plural subjects, in which the present tense does not take the s ending.
These new computers run faster than the old ones. They save time.
If the main verb is separated from the subject by many words, it can be tricky to pick out which word is the subject. In the following, the subject is “Problems” (plural) and the main verb is “fall” (to agree with the plural subject).
Problems for which there exists a solution algorithm that completes in a time that grows in a polynomial fashion with the problem size fall into the set P.
English has a restricted (but not uncommon) use of the subjunctive mood. The subjunctive mood is often used to describe hypothetical situations in the form of ‘If… then…’ statements, or to make recommendations.
If the mosquito were eradicated, then malaria would not be a concern.
We recommend that mosquito control measures be implemented.
