This section tries to give Style suggestions, using mostly sentences and examples from the Student Texts themselves. Entries in this area may cover a litte bit of grammar as well, but the main idea is to point out elements of good writing style, and to demonstrate how these stylistic elements contribute to clarity and readability.
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Adjectives
Appropriate adjective use is important in academic writing, but of course which adjectives should be used or avoided depends entirely on the field of study. In general, informal adjectives should be avoided; correctly using adjective pairs like “former” and “latter” can increase the formality level of the text.
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former / latter
A commonly encountered pair of words in academic writing are former and latter. Former refers to the first of two things named (remember that former comes first), while latter refers to the second of two things named (remember that the latter comes later). In the following example, the adjective former means that the author will use the first definition for the Viking Age, that is, 800–1050.
The Viking Age or the Late Iron Age is a rudimentary appellation for the period between 800–1050 AD in Scandinavia. Philologists specialized in runes use a slightly broader spectrum for the Viking Age period, locating the era between 800–1100 AD. In the present thesis, the former chronological definition of the Viking Age will be used.
These words should only be used when distinguishing between two (and no more than two) alternatives.
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fewer / less
The comparative adjectives fewer and less are often confused. In general, fewer is used for countable things (like minutes, books, words, etc.), while less is used for non-countable things (like water, sand, etc.). However, there are some common exceptions.
The phrase less than is used for explicitly mathematical comparisons, even when a countable noun is being referred to. (The noun in the following sentence is “ways”, and therefore the comparative adjective should technically be fewer.)
There are 981, or slightly less than 2×10E77, possible ways to fill out a 9×9 sudoku grid.
Another common exception occurs when discussing time. For instance, in the sentence “I will be there in less than five minutes,” the “five minutes” is considered to be a distinct unit of time, even though ‘minute’ is a countable noun. But in other cases regarding time, fewer is clearly the correct word.
It will take fewer years to implement pollution controls than thought.
[Some cases are simply ambiguous, if the noun is neither clearly countable nor non-countable.]
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Help verb nuances
Several English help verbs (also called auxiliary verbs) are nearly, but not entirely, synonymous. Some difficult pairs include the words shall and will, should and ought to, and must and need to. Each pair of sentences below means nearly the same thing.
I shall write a thesis. I will write a thesis.
I ought to write a thesis. I should write a thesis.
I must write a thesis. I need to write a thesis.
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shall / will
The English help verbs shall and will in modern English are very similar, but not exactly synonymous. The word will is neutral, while shall is more formal.
In this thesis I shall explain the differences between the competing theories.
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Latin words
This section discusses the use of full Latin words in English, like data and index. Latin-derived abbreviations commonly used in English, like e.g., i.e., et al., etc., can be found in Abbreviations.
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Is the word data plural or singular?
Should one write “The data are [show, demonstrate, etc.]…” or “The data is [shows, demonstrates, etc]…”?
In Latin, the word data is a plural noun and the singular form is datum. In today’s English, the word data is usually used as both singular or plural (as are many other plural Latin nouns such as “opera” and “media”). Find out which usage is more common in your field. If articles that you read for your own work treat data as singular (e.g., if the verb indicates that the word is singular, as in “The primary data is listed in Appendix A”), then use it as singular in your own writing. If articles that you read for your research often treat data as plural (e.g., “The data are compelling” and “One single datum is clearly an outlier”), then you can write in this manner if you like.
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Pluralizing Latin nouns
Some words used commonly in academic English are Latin (formula, index, matrix, appendix, corpus, etc.), and these words are often pluralized differently than an English word would be. Using the correct Latin plural form (formulae, indices, matrices, appendices, corpora) gives a text a quite formal feel. However, in some fields, Latin words are pluralized as if they were English (formulas, indexes).
All the indexes used for the productivity growth measure have been gathered from the National Accounts at SCB.
Many common Latin words (like stadium) are rarely pluralized as if they were Latin (stadiums is much more frequently used than stadia).
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Noun(s) in both singular and plural
It is sometimes desirable to refer to a noun in both its singular and plural form. The convention for doing so, for regular nouns that take the s-ending in plural, is to add the s and enclose it in parentheses.
Reserved time slots are now labeled “You have x machine(s) booked,” so that the user knows how many, and which, machines they have access to.
For irrregular nouns that do not take the s-ending in plural (like one man, two men), one usually must write out both forms combine by the word or.
The man or men who built this altar took care to orient it in a north-south direction.
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Prepositions
Prepositions are small words like at, of, for, since, to, and so on. Although each preposition has a general meaning, each preposition’s use in combination with certain verbs and nouns must be learned on a case-by-case basis.
Prepositions can also act as parts of verbal phrases (svenska: verb partiklar), which is to say that a certain preposition in combination with a certain verb can take a new and different meaning (e.g., look up can be taken literally to mean ‘look upwards toward the sky’, but it often means ‘to search for something’, as in to “I had to look up the word in the dictionary”).
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Ending with a preposition
Whether it is grammatically correct to end a sentence or clause with a preposition has been a matter of debate. However, consensus is that ending a sentence with a preposition is allowable, especially when the preposition acts like a verb particle, or when re-writing to avoid ending with the preposition would make a sentence clumsy.
In this study, the causal directions of the associations will not be explicitly tested for.
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Using to
The word to functions as both the infinitive marker (“To be or not to be, that is the question.”) and as a preposition implying direction. In spoken and informal written English, it is common to come across the following contruction.
He had no inclination to go to Sweden and investigate the case.
This construction is not technically grammatically correct. The correct form is to repeat the word to before each verb, even if to is also used as a preposition.
He had no inclination to go to Sweden to investigate the case.
As a matter of style, to (used as an infinitive marker) can be used one time before a list of verbs. To is then understood to apply to each verb.
She wants to travel, [to] have adventures, and [to] drive from coast to coast.
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Pronouns
A pronoun is a word that takes the place of another word. The most familiar type of pronouns are the personal pronouns such as she, he, it, we, you, they, and so on. Relative pronouns such as that, which, and who introduce descriptive relative clauses. Demonstrative pronouns such as that and this can stand for an entire sentence or idea, and they can also serve as adjectives modifying a noun.
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Choosing the right relative pronoun
Relative pronouns are words like that and which, and they are used to replace a word or phrase in a previous phrase or sentence. Using relative pronouns correctly increases clarity, and makes a text more formal. It is important to note that that the use of these words in writing may differ slightly from their use in spoken English.
ESL Tips on the Use of Relative Pronouns
[Source: https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/645/03/]
Although there is no one single rule to cover all the cases, the following summary may be helpful if you need to make a quick decision:
- Use that if the main clause poses the question WHAT? answered by the relative clause;
- Do not use that presenting non-essential, additional information (that is, in non-defining relative clauses); use who or which instead;
- Use who to refer to people;
- Use which to refer to things or to refer to the previous clause as a whole;
- If you choose between who or that, use who in writing;
- If you choose between which and that, use which in writing;
- Do not put a comma before that.
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in which / where / when
Relative pronouns can function as objects in both restrictive and non-restrictive clauses. If the pronoun refers to a human, then the word “whom” is used. When the pronoun refers to a non-human thing, in which, where, and when are used.
The book in which these concepts are first described was published in 2010.
The relative pronoun where is used when a physical location is being referred to. Where is also sometimes used instead of in which when referring to a printed source. This usage is not incorrect, although it is less formal.
Runic artefacts can appear in a wide variety of materials, in contrast to rune stones where letters are carved onto naturally resistant material.
The book where these concepts are first described was published in 2010.
The relative pronoun when can be used if a time period is being referred to, although in which can also be used.
Interpretations of cultures are inevitably influenced by the historical period when they were made.
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Using that which / what
The phrase that which (or those which, in plural) and the word what can be used as pronouns to introduce a relative clause. The two alternatives are nearly equivalent in meaning, although that which is more formal than what.
Our conclusion is very much in line with that which others have made.
Our results are very much in line with those which have been found previously.
Our results are very much in line with what others have found.
In some cases, that which is clearly preferable to what.
When he first meets Daisy, his image of her and that of her house are closely connected because to him they both represent that which is forbidden.
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who / that
Whenever the thing referred to is a human, it is more formal to use the relative pronoun who.
Expatriates who are new to a country will have much to learn.
Using that, while not incorrect, is somewhat less formal.
Expatriates that are new to a country will have much to learn.
In certain circumstance, who can be used instead of that, if the stylistic purpose is to anthropomorphize the referrent.
Firms who manage to attract high-level workers are undervalued be the market.
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whose / of which
Things owned by a human or animal can be indicated by the word whose (“My sister, whose car I am borrowing, comes home tomorrow.”) However, English has no word for things owned by an inanimate object. In these cases, the word whose can be used, although this usage is considered by some to be less formal. The alternative is to use the phrase of which. Using of which will require re-writing certain parts of the sentence, and even then, such a re-write is not always feasible.
The second chapter describes numerical prediction models used in Sweden today, whose accuracies contribute to the dependability of forecast products.
The second chapter describes numerical prediction models used in Sweden today, the accuracies of which contribute to the dependability of forecast products.
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why / that
When using a relative pronoun to introduce a cause of something, one can use either why or that.
This is the reason that both the web interface and the booking board show only seven days of reservations
[T]here must be an underlying ideological, ritual, sociological, or political, if not operative, reason why the dead and/or those who have buried them would choose to mark a person in death in a particular way (Costin 1996:119).
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A person of unknown gender
It is often necessary to refer to a person whose gender is unknown or irrelevant. In such cases, the plural pronoun they can be used.
Saving the game should allow the player to return to the real world when they need to.
Either of the personal pronouns she or he could also be used; sometimes she/he or he/she are used. The form s/he is generally considered less formal.
An alternative is to rewrite the sentence to avoid the pronoun.
Saving the game should allow the player to return to the real world when necessary.
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Demonstrative pronouns and demonstrative adjectives
The phrases this is and these are are often seen at the beginning of clauses or sentences. The demonstrative pronouns this and these refer back to a word or idea in the previous clause or sentence.
Runic artefacts are both textual sources and archaeological artefacts. Because of this it will be important to classify runic artefacts according to both function and inscription.
However, demonstrative pronouns can reduce writing clarity when they are used in the following situations: 1) at the beginning of sentences; 2) in sentences in which several topics are covered; 3) in more complicated sentences containing several clauses. For example, in the second sentence, it is not clear which topic the pronoun this refers to.
The algorithms discussed in this paper, however theoretically fast, must also be implemented in an efficient way, and certain difficulties will be encountered. This is discussed in the framework of future exascale computers.
The word this could refer to the difficulties, the need for implementation of an efficient algorithm, or the theoretical speed of the algorithms. The problem is easily fixed by turning the demonstrative pronoun into a demonstrative adjective modifying the noun. In other words, simply add or repeat the relevant noun, like this:
The algorithms discussed in this paper, however theoretically fast, must also be implemented in an efficient way, and certain difficulties will be encountered. These difficulties are discussed in the framework of future exascale computers.
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How to refer to yourself
Different fields of study have different traditions about whether authors can refer to themselves as “I” or “We” when discussing their thoughts and actions. An advantage of using “I/We” is that active verbs may be used. A disadvantage is that emphasis is given to the person or persons performing the action, rather than to the action itself.
The most common way to avoid using the first-person perspective is to write as if the text itself is performing actions.
This paper will analyze…; This section will describe…; This research has demonstrated…;
To avoid using the first person, the passive voice is often used.
Mosquitos were collected from 15 sites in Dalarna.
By measuring gene expressions induced in fish tissues, conclusions concerning aquatic ecosystem health can be made.
If the person or persons doing the research must be invoked, the following type of construction can be used.
The graves containing the artefacts were examined by the author. There were four graves for which no gender attributions have been made, to the author’s knowledge.
The indefinite prounoun one can also be used, even if the paper has several authors.
These results lead one to speculate about the future use of solar panels in Sweden.
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Similar but not synonymous
English has many words that are very close to each other in spelling, and also many words that sound nearly identical. In some cases, the meanings of these words are also close enough to cause confusion. Here, we distinguish the meanings of some commonly confused words.
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affect / effect
The word affect is usually a verb, while the word effect is usually a noun. Compare the following two sentences:
Having a low emission zone affects a city’s pollution concentrations.
The effect of having a low emission zone is a reduction in pollution.
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complement / compliment
To complement something means to complete it (the adjective form is complementary). To compliment something (or more often, someone) means to give praise (adjective, complimentary).
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limit / delimit
The verbs limit and delimit are similar in meaning but not quite synonymous. To limit requires a human agent to apply a limit to, or set a limit for, something. Limit is often used with the prepositions to or by.
I will limit my searches by keywords. Searches were limited to certain journals.
Delimit means demarcate or bound, and does not require a human agent in the same way that limit does. Delimited is followed by by, but not to.
The nature area is delimited by a river on the north side and a farm on the east side.
In a phrase like ‘tab-delimited data’, the tabs are just a marker of the values; the tabs themselves don’t play a role in the meaning of the values, nor in how those values came to be divided. Something that was called ‘tab-limited data’ would mean data that the tabs themselves had somehow imposed an order on.
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lose / loose
The word lose is a verb, and it means to drop or miss something, or to not win a contest. The word lose is used quite commonly, and it occurs in a variety of idioms.
They will lose the game if they play badly. An airplane loses altitude when it starts to land.
She was losing the race, but came back to win a gold medal. I keep losing my keys.
The word loose is usually an adjective, and it is the opposite of tight. Rarely, it can be used as a verb, in which case it means to let go of something that is tied up (“Loose the dogs” ⇒ Release the dogs from their leashes). To describe the action of relieving the pressure of something that is tight, like a knot, one would usually use a form of loosen (“I tied my shoes too tightly, so I need to loosen my shoelaces.”)
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as a result / consequently
Expressions such as ”as a result” and ”consequently” indicate that what is written here follows from the preceding statement(s), which helps the reader understand the link between these sentences.
As a result, using multimedia in the classroom will have a positive effect on learning and understanding.
Since the faculty member is not supposed to see this sheet prior to return of the processed data, he can not elect this option. Consequently, there is no apparent need of this data element.
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because / as
The words because and as can be used as transition words that indicate causation, and they are nearly synonymous. Because is the more general purpose word meaning ‘as a result of’, and can be used in almost all circumstances. As means ‘with the reason being that’.
Because the male characters in The Great Gatsby build their selves around their wives or lovers, they are vulnerable.
It was not always beneficial to increase the magnetic energy further, as the stator steel was saturated at about 1.8 T.
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by contrast / in contrast
The expression ”by contrast” (and less frequently: ”in contrast”) indicate that what follows is in contrast to what was said immediately before this.
Nicaragua uses a system similar to the precinct system in the United States, whereby polling stations are distributed through all urban neighborhoods and registered voters are assigned to the station closest to their residence. In E1 Salvador, by contrast, voters in each municipality are assigned to voting stations alphabetically.
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consequently / subsequently
Consequently and subsequently are useful transition words, but they are not synonyms. The word consequently means approximately ‘resulting from’, and is rather like the word ‘therefore’. The word subsequently means ‘after that’, and should be used only to describe the order in which two things happen or occur.
The company announced record profits. Consequently, all employees got bonuses. (Employees got bonuses because of the profits.)
The company announced record profits. Subsequently, the CEO accepted a job at a different company. (The CEO left after the record profits were announced; the profits and the CEO leaving are not necessarily related events.)
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contrary to / unlike
The expressions ”contrary to” and ”unlike” can be used to compare and contrast two propositions.
Unlike the U.S. Supreme Court, the Constitutional Court does not hear criminal cases.
In contrast to the M. pneumoniae findings, we found no significant differences in clinical characteristics.
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however
The transition word however signals to the reader that what is to follow is a contrast or exception to what has been said just before in the text.
The magnetic energy was increased by changing the pole shoes. However, there is an upper limit to how high the magnetic field in the stator steel should be to work at its best.
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moreover / furthermore / in addition / additionally
The words moreover, in addition, additionally, and furthermore can be used as transition words to indicate that additional information will be presented.
Short range weather forecasts can predict where a storm will happen, but longer range forecasts often cannot. Moreover/Additionally/In addition, calculating even a short range forecast can be very computationally intensive. Furthermore, even if a pilot had a powerful computer, it would still be impossible to forecast the exact timing and location of a lightening strike.
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nevertheless / nonetheless
The linking words ”nevertheless” and ”nonetheless” indicate that what follows is in contrast to what is stated in the previous sentence or paragraph; more specifically, they are used similarly to ”even so” or ”all the same”.
This student was not participating as other students were; nevertheless, he was making a meaningful contribution to the ensemble.
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similarly
The expression ”similarly” (and less commonly ”in the same line”) indicate that what follows is similar to (but not exactly the same as) what has been said immediately before this.
Policy makers are now much more aware of the need to manage these substances through government policies and programs […]. Similarly, the public is becoming more aware of the health hazards associated with PBTSs.
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therefore
The words therefore means approximately ‘as a result’. It also has a formal meaning in mathematics. It should generally be used when a conclusion is clear or unarguable (or if you’d like to make your conclusion appear that way).
In the eyes of employers, this potential is valuable and therefore compensated through the wage.
The inhabitants of the new world are men who have been “unsexed by failure” (Mead 318) and therefore do not exist except as “ghosts, breathing dreams like air” (154).
Note that therefore cannot function alone as a conjunjunction joining two independent clauses (in these examples, “and” is the conjunction).
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thus / hence
The words thus and hence are both formal ways saying ‘as a result’. In formal texts, it is often suggested to use them slightly differently. Thus is used to indicate a conclusion about something that has happened in the past, while hence is used to indicate something that will happen in the future.
Profits were higher last quater; thus, everyone got a raise. ⇒ The raise already happened.
Profits were higher last quarter; hence, everyone is expecting a raise. ⇒ The raise hasn’t happened yet.
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yet / still
The linking words ”yet” and ”still” indicate that what follows is in contrast to what is stated in the previous sentence or paragraph. More specifically, they are used similarly to expressions such as ”even so” and ”all the same” (see ”nevertheless”).
The Abrahamic traditions offer many answers to the problem of evil. Yet, after all explanations are given, an element of mystery remains.
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Using contractions
Contractions are somewhat informal, and should generally be used sparingly in academic prose. They can be used to give a stylistic effect of informality, as if addressing the reader directly.
But should the reader have prior experience, their reading of section 2.1 in this chapter needn’t be ferociously meticulous.
If a directly-quoted source text uses a contraction, then the contraction should be repeated exactly as it was written in the original text, even if your text is formal.
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Using the passive voice
The passive voice is often used when describing methodology. Using the passive voice emphasizes the action taken rather than the entity performing the action. In each of the following examples, the author or authors are the (unspecified) actors.
The specimens were collected according to established protocols. (instead of “I collected specimens…”)
Several factors have been taken into consideration before categorizing artefacts. (instead of “I took several factors into consideration…”)
The questions for the interviews were formed using our theoretical framework. (instead of “We formed the questions…”)
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Using the English subjunctive
English has a subjunctive mood (svenska: konjunktiv). Although this mood is not commonly used in speech or informal writing, it is often found in academic texts. Many types of academic texts posit hypothetical situations, or propose solutions to problems. Using the subjunctive properly in these situations gives a text a formal tone.
To demonstrate how the subjunctive can be used, we can compare a real-life situation to a hypothetical situation. Here is a simple sentence that describes reality.
The mosquito is a problem in Brazil, and so mosquito control programs are used there.
In contrast, the subjunctive mood describes a situation that does not exist. Note that this mood is often used in sentences that have the word “if” in them.
Norway might also implement such programs, if a disease-bearing mosquito were found there.
The subjunctive mood can be used to make recommendations.
We suggest that a mosquito control program be implemented soon.
The subjunctive mood can also be used to express an opinion about a hypothetical outcome.
It would be unfortunate if a mosquito control program were not implemented.
Note that when the subject is singular (as it is in the last three sentences), the verb “to be” is conjugated differently.
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