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Identifying the Effects of Low Emission Zones, Abstract

→ Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Background
3-4 Theoretical Analysis, Data Selection
5-6 Graphical Analysis, Empirical Strategy
7 Results
8-9 Discussion, Conclusion
Extra text

Abstract

This paper examines the effects of German low emission zones on air pollution by particulate matter from road traffic. Low emission zones have become a popular tool for policy makers to ensure compliance with EU air quality legislation, but empirical evidence about their effectiveness is still missing. This study tests for average and heterogeneous treatment effects by using a difference-in-differences approach on station-level PM10 panel data for the years 2004 – 2010. Using fixed effects to control for unobserved heterogeneity, the results suggest that the policy fails to reduce average PM concentrations, while it shows some success in reducing the number of days with excessively high pollution. This effect is limited to highly polluted and large cities and applies only to the very local environment. It is thus concluded that low emission zones only work under very specific conditions and should not be the ultimate tool policy makers rely on when trying to improve air quality.

Keywords: Air pollution, PM10, difference-in-differences, environmental policy, local traffic pollution policies

Filed in:

Subjects: Economics
Text types: Master thesis

Abstract

Research papers like articles, theses, and lab reports almost always require an Abstract, which can be thought of as a special type of summary. The Abstract is the first section of such texts (usually no more than 1–2 paragraphs and/or 150–300 words long), and it should summarize the purpose of the study, its method and/or theoretical approach, and its main findings. The Abstract is an independent text that a reader should be able to understand without reading the longer text that it summarizes.

When writing an Abstract, make sure to provide a clear and accurate picture of your study so that the reader can decide whether or not the paper is relevant for her purposes. Remember that the Abstract is in many cases the only part of your text that will be read.

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Acronyms

Acronyms are a type of abbreviation in which the first letters from a phrase or name are taken to stand for the whole phrase or name. Often, an acronym is given in capital letters. Frequently used technical acronyms should be defined the first time they are used.

In 2012, the National Veterinary Institute (SVA) started a national project called Myggjakten in order to collect mosquito DNA.

A small segment of a gene, approximately 400-1000 base pairs (bp), is examined by a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and sequenced.

Note that in these examples, the boldface is used only to highlight the acronym in the example; acronyms do not need to be highlighted in real texts. Sometimes full stops are used after each letter (such as the U.K. and the U.S.), but using stops is often optional.

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have

Have is used in the 1st and 2nd person singular, and the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd person plural. Have can be used as a main verb to indicate possession, or as a helper verb in combination with another verb to indicate various tenses.

Main verb: I/You/We/They have a car.
Helper verb: I have saved enough money, and I have decided to buy a car.

Have is also used when the word “they” is being used to refer to a single person of a non-specified gender.

If a student does the homework, then they have a good chance of passing the class.

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in which / where / when

Relative pronouns can function as objects in both restrictive and non-restrictive clauses. If the pronoun refers to a human, then the word “whom” is used. When the pronoun refers to a non-human thing, in which, where, and when are used.

The book in which these concepts are first described was published in 2010.

The relative pronoun where is used when a physical location is being referred to. Where is also sometimes used instead of in which when referring to a printed source. This usage is not incorrect, although it is less formal.

Runic artefacts can appear in a wide variety of materials, in contrast to rune stones where letters are carved onto naturally resistant material.

The book where these concepts are first described was published in 2010.

The relative pronoun when can be used if a time period is being referred to, although in which can also be used.

Interpretations of cultures are inevitably influenced by the historical period when they were made.

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Using is / are

Whether to use is or are depends on whether the subject of the sentence is single or plural. The choice can be confusing when the subject and the noun closest to the verb are not in the same number, as in the following examples.

This category of puzzles is very challenging for humans. (subject is singular, “This category”)

Puzzles falling into this category are very challenging for humans. (subject is plural, “Puzzles”)

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Keywords

Keywords are often listed after the Abstract. When selecting Keywords, make sure that they are not too general. For example, if you have written an essay about the use of irony in Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice you should not have “19th century novels” or “women writers” as Keywords. At the same time, your Keywords should not be too detailed either, since then it might be difficult for potential readers to find your text.

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Personal

The singular personal possessives are my (1st person), your (2nd), and her, his, or its (3rd).

The reliquary was transformed into a jewellery box after its arrival in Norway.

The plural personal possessives are our (1st person), your (2nd), and their (3rd).

Women were sometimes buried with their possessions.

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How to refer to yourself

Different fields of study have different traditions about whether authors can refer to themselves as “I” or “We” when discussing their thoughts and actions. An advantage of using “I/We” is that active verbs may be used. A disadvantage is that emphasis is given to the person or persons performing the action, rather than to the action itself.

The most common way to avoid using the first-person perspective is to write as if the text itself is performing actions.

This paper will analyze…; This section will describe…; This research has demonstrated…;

To avoid using the first person, the passive voice is often used.

Mosquitos were collected from 15 sites in Dalarna.

By measuring gene expressions induced in fish tissues, conclusions concerning aquatic ecosystem health can be made.

If the person or persons doing the research must be invoked, the following type of construction can be used.

The graves containing the artefacts were examined by the author. There were four graves for which no gender attributions have been made, to the author’s knowledge.

The indefinite prounoun one can also be used, even if the paper has several authors.

These results lead one to speculate about the future use of solar panels in Sweden.

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Subject extraposition

What is known as ”subject extraposition” (or ”the introductory it pattern”) is a construction that can be very helpful for sentence-structural purposes, as it helps writers avoid so-called ”heavy subjects”, where too much information is placed before the (main) verb of the sentence. This construction also enables writers to disguise their involvement, thereby making the statement seem more objective.

The construction is made up of an introductory it, a predicate (a verb with an optional adjective, noun and/or adverb); examples include:

It has been found that many people enjoy a session in a lunch hour.

It is possible to establish a qualitative correlation with the energy administered to each irradiated point.

The construction can also be used to express a stance towards the proposition stated in the to-, that– or wh-clause:

It seems that school reforms are not in alignment with a culturally responsive curriculum.

It is interesting to note that both groups scored lower on the QRI-5 posttest than the pretest.

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Demonstrative pronouns and demonstrative adjectives

The phrases this is and these are are often seen at the beginning of clauses or sentences. The demonstrative pronouns this and these refer back to a word or idea in the previous clause or sentence.

Runic artefacts are both textual sources and archaeological artefacts. Because of this it will be important to classify runic artefacts according to both function and inscription.

However, demonstrative pronouns can reduce writing clarity when they are used in the following situations: 1) at the beginning of sentences; 2) in sentences in which several topics are covered; 3) in more complicated sentences containing several clauses. For example, in the second sentence, it is not clear which topic the pronoun this refers to.

The algorithms discussed in this paper, however theoretically fast, must also be implemented in an efficient way, and certain difficulties will be encountered. This is discussed in the framework of future exascale computers.

The word this could refer to the difficulties, the need for implementation of an efficient algorithm, or the theoretical speed of the algorithms. The problem is easily fixed by turning the demonstrative pronoun into a demonstrative adjective modifying the noun. In other words, simply add or repeat the relevant noun, like this:

The algorithms discussed in this paper, however theoretically fast, must also be implemented in an efficient way, and certain difficulties will be encountered. These difficulties are discussed in the framework of future exascale computers.

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Using the s-ending for verbs

With a third-person singular subject, the verb takes an –s in the present tense. That is, when the subject is 1) only a single entity that could be replaced by “she,” “he” or “it” and 2) the action takes place in the present, one adds the letter s to the verb.

This new computer runs faster than the old one. It saves time.

Compare to the following sentence with plural subjects, in which the present tense does not take the s ending.

These new computers run faster than the old ones. They save time.

If the main verb is separated from the subject by many words, it can be tricky to pick out which word is the subject. In the following, the subject is “Problems” (plural) and the main verb is “fall” (to agree with the plural subject).

Problems for which there exists a solution algorithm that completes in a time that grows in a polynomial fashion with the problem size fall into the set P.

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Years as numerals

It is common to use numerals to refer to years, decades, and centuries. Decades and centuries are sometimes spelled out (for instance, “in the nineteenth century”), although numerals are also common (“in the 19th century”).

The earliest finds with runic inscriptions are dated to the 2nd century AD.

Philologists specialized in runes use a slightly broader spectrum for the Viking Age period, defining it as the era between 800–1100 AD.

The letter ‘s’ that comes after a year range indicates the plural of the years, not the possessive, and therefore no punctuation should be used between the numerals and the ‘s’.

Computers in the 1970s and early 1980s used cassette tapes for storage.

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Texts, Tools, and Tips for Academic Writing

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Identifying the Effects of Low Emission Zones, Abstract

Abstract

Abstract

Acronyms

have

in which / where / when

Using is / are

Keywords

Personal

How to refer to yourself

Subject extraposition

Demonstrative pronouns and demonstrative adjectives

Using the s-ending for verbs

Years as numerals